Understanding halitosis: A comprehensive review of etiology, diagnosis, and management

References

1. Bicak DA. A current approach to halitosis and oral malodor: A mini review. Open Dent J. 2018;12:322–30.
2. Zalewska A, Zatoński M, Jabłonka-Strom A, Paradowska A, Kawala B, Litwin A. Halitosis-a common medical and social problem: A review on pathology, diagnosis and treatment. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2012;75(3):300–9.
3. Calil C, Liberato FL, Pereira AC, de Castro Meneghim M, Goodson JM, Groppo FC. The relationship between volatile sulphur compounds, tongue coating and periodontal disease. Int J Dent Hyg. 2009;7(4):251–5.
4. Coli JM, Tonzetich J. Characterization of volatile sulphur compounds production at individual gingival crevicular sites in humans. J Clin Dent. 1992;3(4):97–103.
5. Miyazaki H, Sakao S, Katoh Y, Takehara T. Correlation between volatile sulphur compounds and certain oral health measurements in the general population. J Periodontol. 1995;66(8):679–84.
6. Bollen CM, Rompen EH, Demanez JP. La mauvaise haleine: un problème multidisciplinaire [Halitosis: a multidisciplinary problem]. Rev Med Liege. 1999;54(1):32–36.
7. Miyazaki H, Arao M, Okamura K, Kawaguchi Y, Toyofuku A, Hoshi K, et al. Tentative classification of halitosis and its treatment needs. Niigata Dent J. 1999;32:7–11.
8. Aydin M, Harvey-Woodworth CN. Halitosis: a new definition and classification. Br Dent J. 2014 Jul 11;217(1):E1.
9. Attia EL, Marshall KG. Halitosis. CMAJ. 1982;126(11):1281–5. 86 Pujari et al. / The Journal of Dental Panacea 2025;7(2):77-86
10. Aimetti M, Perotto S, Castiglione A, Ercoli E, Romano F. Prevalence estimation of halitosis and its association with oral health-related parameters in an adult population of a city in North Italy. J Clin Periodontol. 2015;42(12):1105–14.
11. Paradowska A, Marczewski B, Pawlowska-Cierniak E. Self- perception of halitosis among students of Wroclaw Medical University. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2007;16(4):543–8.
12. Bollen CM, Beikler T. Halitosis: The multidisciplinary approach. Int J Oral Sci. 2012;4(2):55–63.
13. Bornstein MM, Stocker BL, Seemann R, Burgin WB, Lussi A. Prevalence of halitosis in young male adults: A study in Swiss army recruits comparing self-reported and clinical data. J Periodontol. 2009;80(1):24–31.
14. Kim SY, Sim S, Kim SG, Park B, Choi HG. Prevalence and associated factors of subjective halitosis in Korean adolescents. PLoS One. 2015;10(5):e0126394.
15. Nadanovsky P, Carvalho LBM, Leon A. Oral malodour and its association with age and sex in a general population in Brazil. Oral Dis. 2007;13(1):105–109.
16. Villa A, Zollanvari A, Alterovitz G, Cagetti MG, Strohmenger L, Abati S. Prevalence of halitosis in children considering oral hygiene, gender and age. Int J Dent Hyg. 2014;12(3):208–12.
17. Hughes FJ, McNab R. Oral malodour – a review. Arch Oral Biol. 2008;53(1):1–7.
18. Nachnani S. Oral malodour: causes, assessment, and treatment. Compend Contin Educ Dent. 2011;32:22–4.
19. Setia S, Pannu P, Gambhir R, Galhotra V, Ahluwalia P, Sofat A. Correlation of oral hygiene practices, smoking and oral health conditions with self-perceived halitosis amongst undergraduate dental students. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2014;5(1):67–75.
20. Izidoro C, Botelho J, Machado V, Reis AM, Proença L, Alves RC, et al. Revisiting standard and novel therapeutic approaches in halitosis: A review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(18):11303.
21. Kleinberg I, Wolff MS, Codipilly DM. Role of saliva in oral dryness, oral feel and oral malodour. Int Dent J. 2002;52(3):236–40.
22. Soares LG, Tinoco EMB. Prevalence and related parameters of halitosis in general population and periodontal patients. OA Dent. 2014;2(1):4.
23. Rosenberg M, McCullough CA. Measurements of oral malodor: current methods and future prospects. J Periodontol. 1992;63(9):776–82.
24. Tangerman A, Winkel EG. Intra- and extra-oral halitosis: Finding of a new form of extra-oral blood-borne halitosis caused by dimethyl sulphide. J Clin Periodontol. 2007;34(9):748–55.
25. Tonzetich J. Production and origin of oral malodor: A review of mechanisms and methods of an alysis. J Periodontol. 1977;48(1):13–20.
26. Kazor CE, Mitchell PM, Lee AM, Stokes LN, Loesche WJ, Dewhirst FE, et al. Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthy patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(2):558–63.
27. Hartley MG, El-Maaytah MA, McKenzie C, Greenman J. The tongue microbiota of low odour and malodorous individuals. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 1996;9:215–23.
28. Sara B, Giuseppe M, Adelaide CM. Dorsal lingual surface and halitosis: A morphological point of view. Acta Stomatol Croat. 2016;50(2):151–7.
29. Bosy A, Kulkarni GV, Rosenberg M, McCulloch C. Relationship of oral malodor to periodontitis: Evidence of independence in discrete subpopulations. J Periodontol. 1994;65(1):37–46.
30. Kapoor U, Sharma G, Juneja M, Nagpal A. Halitosis: Current concepts on etiology, diagnosis and management. Eur J Dent. 2016;10(2):292–300.
31. Aylıkcı BU, Colak H. Halitosis: From diagnosis to management. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2013;4:14–23.
32. Tangerman A, Winkel EG. Intra- and extra-oral halitosis: Finding of a new form of extra-oral blood-borne halitosis caused by dimethyl sulphide. J Clin Periodontol. 2007;34(9):748–55.
33. Rosenberg M. The science of bad breath. Sci Am. 2002;286(4):72–
34. Lee PP, Mak WY, Newsome P. The aetiology and treatment of oral halitosis: An update. Hong Kong Med J. 2004;10(6):414–8.
35. Moshkowitz M, Horowitz N, Leshno M, Halpern Z. Halitosis and gastroesophageal reflux disease: A possible association. Oral Dis. 2007;13(6):581–5.
36. Scully C, Greenman J. Halitology (breath odour: Aetiopathogenesis and management). Oral Dis. 2012;18(4):333–45.
37. Pruet CW, Duplan DA. Tonsil concretions and tonsilloliths. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1987;20(2):305–9.
38. Mortazavi H, Rahbani Nobar B, Shafiei S. Drug-related halitosis: A systematic review. Oral Health Prev Dent. 2020;18(3):399–407.
39. Seemann R, Conceicao MD, Filippi A, et al. Halitosis management by the general dental practitioner: Results of an international consensus workshop. J Breath Res. 2014;8(1):017101.
40. Rayman S, Almas K. Halitosis among racially diverse populations: An update. Int J Dent Hyg. 2008;6(1):2–7.
41. Waler SM. On the transformation of sulfur-containing amino acids and peptides to volatile sulfur compounds (VSC) in the human mouth. Eur J Oral Sci. 1997;105(5 Pt 2):534–7.
42. Veeray JM, Gupta KK, Soni S, Kothari D. Comparison of clinical indices with halitosis grading in chronic periodontitis: A randomized control trial. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2023;27(4):422–7.
43. Rosenberg M, Septon I, Eli I, Bar-Ness R, Gelernter I, Brenner S, et al. Halitosis measurement by an industrial sulphide monitor. J Periodontol. 1991;62(8):487–9.
44. Patil SH, Kulloli A, Kella M. Unmasking oral malodor: A review. People’s J Sci Res. 2011;5(1):61–7.
45. Scully C, Greenman J. Halitosis (Breath odour). Periodontology
46. 2008;48:66–75.
47. Mantini A, Di Natale C, Macagnano A, Paolesse R, Finazzi-Agro A, D’Amoco A. Biomedical application of an electronic nose. Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 2000;28(3-4):481–5.
48. Quirynen M, van Steenberghe D. Oral malodor. In: Newman MG, Takei HH, Klokkevold PR, Carranza FA, editors. Carranza’s Clinical Periodontology. 10th ed. St. Louis: Saunders; 2006. p. 330–
49. Van den Broek AM, Feenstra L, de Baat C. A review of the current literature on aetiology and measurement methods of halitosis. J Dent. 2007;35(8):627–35.
50. Kozlovsky A, Gordon D, Gelernter I, Loesche WJ, Rosenberg M. Correlation between the BANA test and oral malodor parameters. J Dent Res. 1994;73(5):1036–42.
51. Kamaraj RD, Bhushan KS, KL V. An evaluation of microbial profile in halitosis with tongue coating using PCR: A clinical and microbiological study. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014;8(1):263–7.
52. Rosenberg M, Septon I, Eli I, Bar-Ness R, Gelernter I, Brenner S, Gabbay J. Halitosis measurement by an industrial sulphide monitor. J Periodontol. 1991;62(8):487–9.
53. Van der Sleen MI, Slot DE, van Trijffel E, Winkel EG, van der Weijden GA. Effectiveness of mechanical tongue cleaning on breath odour and tongue coating: A systematic review. Int J Dent Hyg. 2010;8:258–68.